Chapter 2 COMPOSITION

2.1 Titles

The purpose of a piece of scientific writing is to present information clearly and concisely so that it can be easily understood. Clarity therefore begins with the title.
In scientific and technical writing, a poetic or stylized title does not help the reader at all. For example, the following title

The Kopje Drummers of the Karoo

does not tell the reader that the paper is about birds, woodpeckers to be exact. However, this title
The mating rituals of Geocolaptes olivaceus, South Africa’s Ground Woodpecker tells the reader very clearly what the subject of the paper is.

Elements in a title

In technical and scientific writing the title is a precise description of the contents. It should include specific words to indicate the following:
􀂃 the topic, that is, the main, general subject you are writing about
􀂃 the focus, that is, a detailed narrowing down of the topic into the particular, limited area of your research
􀂃 optionally, for a scientific article, the purpose of your writing. This means including a word such as the following, which tells the reader what kind of argumentation to expect:
An analysis of … An assessment of … A comparison of … A description of …
A discussion of … An evaluation of … An explanation of … An outline of …
Some sample titles:
purpose
topic
focus
An analysis of
carp culture management
as a tool for Mexican crayfish conservation.
An overview of
nutritional needs
before, during and after an endurance event.
A discussion of
genetic engineering technology
and its effects on the environment.
An evaluation of
sewage treatment
as a tool in environmental protection.

Punctuation of titles: capital letters

• It is clearer to type your title in lower case rather than in capital letters.
• Use capital letters for the first letter of all the main words in the title, including nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, longer prepositions, conjunctions
• Do not use capital letters for short structural words (except when they are the first word of the title), such as articles (a, an, the), short prepositions (of, in, to ,at), co-ordinating conjunctions (and, or, nor, but, for)

Points to check in your own writing
􀂃 Be precise and concise; strive for clarity and avoid terms with multiple meanings which might lead to misunderstanding
􀂃 Use key words from the paper to inform readers of the content, but try not to choose too many technical words as this will not attract a wider audience
􀂃 Titles stand alone; they are not a part of the opening sentence or paragraph

2.2 Planning your Writing

A primary tool for a writer is making a plan or outline before starting to write. Planning enables you to:
􀂃 organise your thoughts efficiently
􀂃 decide on the most effective way to present your information.
􀂃 keep to a logical sequence of points and not wander off on a tangent
􀂃 remember all the information that must be included
􀂃 cut out unnecessary or irrelevant bits
Of course a plan can be changed. Writing is an exploratory process and as the piece is being written and assembled the outline can be amended to take account of additional points or to change emphasis. A plan is simply a tool to ease the writer's task: it should remind you of what to do, not dictate to you.

Different kinds of plans

􀂃 A simple plan. Only the main points are jotted down in an order that best serves the argument and information sharing of the paper.
􀂃 A complete plan. Below the main points of the simple plan, you can list more specific points. Generally you do not have to be over-specific, but this is a way of making sure that the detailed points you want to make are not forgotten.
􀂃 A question plan. In these you write down the questions that you are trying to answer at each stage of your work. This form helps you to understand the reader’s position and may help focus the plan and organize your strategy.
􀂃 A sentence plan. A simple sentence summarising the main point of each paragraph and section. These give you direction, and can sometimes form the first or 'topic' sentences of your paragraphs.

Putting your ideas in order

Written work must be ordered. Though information and ideas may come to you randomly, it is your job as a writer to clarify and structure your data and present it in a sane, sensible and logical fashion. Here are some points to think about when planning, selecting and sequencing your material:
􀂃 Have a goal, a main idea and intent. Every idea, sentence and paragraph must lead towards that goal effectively. Stick to the matter at hand; omit anything that does not lead towards the goal, no matter how interesting.
􀂃 Have a reason for ordering your paper as you do, and then convince the reader of your argument by developing it smoothly and logically.
􀂃 Each idea and concept (with its substantiation) should flow logically from one to the next.

Different ways of ordering your material

chronological or sequential
Step by step. Points are made one after another in the order of occurrence.
from simple to complex
Used when proving an assertion made in the introduction. Each step builds on the one before, from the obvious to the complicated, building the reader’s understanding gradually. It builds naturally to a climax in the conclusion.
from complex to simple
Used when urging the reader to apply a solution to a problem. It states the problem, and then begins to direct towards a specific solution.
from general to specific
Used when contrasting and comparing, from similarity to difference.
from specific to general
Used when contrasting and comparing, from difference to similarity.

Layout of a sample plan
In a typical layout, a combination of numerals and letters are organised in a hierarchy. For example:
􀂃 Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V ...), signifying main points
􀂃 capital letters (A, B, C, D …)
􀂃 Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4 …)
􀂃 lower case letters (a, b, c, d, …)
􀂃 numerals in parentheses ( (1), (2), (3), (4) …)
􀂃 lower case letters in parentheses ( (a), (b), (c), (d)…)
In the text each lower level is indented further.
                   I                                                   first main point
                            A                                         partofI
                                    1                                 part of I.A
                                         a                            part of I.A.1
                                             (1)                     part of I.A.1.a
                                                    (a)              part of I.A.1.a.(1)
                                                    (b)              part of I.A.1.a.(1)
                                             (2)                     part of I.A.1.a
                                                    (a)              part of I.A.1.a.(2)
                                         b                           part of I.A.1
                                             (1)                     part of I.A.1.b
                                   2                                 part of I.A
                                         a                           part of I.A.2
                          B                                         part of I
                                  1                                 part of I.B
                 II                                                  secondmainpoint
The plan continues …

2.3 Paragraph Writing

Paragraphs are the essential building blocks of your writing. They mark the flow of your argument, with each paragraph focusing on one main idea and a cluster of connected sentences to expound upon and amplify it. Your argument progresses by moving from the main idea in one paragraph to the main idea in the next. Paragraphs also provide the reader with visual help in following your argument as they appear as separate blocks of text on the printed page.

Length of a paragraph

• There is no ideal length that can apply to all paragraphs since length depends largely on the content. However, as a general guide, it is helpful to the reader to keep most of your paragraphs to between seven and fourteen lines in length (say, between three and six or seven sentences).
• Occasionally paragraphs can be shorter than this (where a point needs to be made briefly or with special emphasis) or longer (where more detailed elaboration of a point is needed).
• For the reader, too many short paragraphs make your writing too bitty, while too many long ones makes it rather heavy and difficult to follow.

Number of ideas in a paragraph
There is normally only one main idea in each paragraph and this is expressed in a topic sentence. The other sentences support and expand on the idea in the topic sentence in different ways. The last sentence can often be important too, as it can be used to summarise the gist of the paragraph.

Placing the main idea in the paragraph
The ‘topic sentence’ is usually the first sentence in the paragraph, though it can be the second (when the first is used as a kind of introduction). You can test this by ‘skimming’ an article quickly, just reading the first sentences of each paragraph, and seeing if you can follow the overall development of the argument. Normally, you can.

Structure of a paragraph
There is no single pattern that will apply to all paragraphs. Following the topic sentence, the other sentences can have a variety of functions, e.g.:
• clarifying or re-stating the main idea
• explaining the idea
• qualifying the main point in some way
• providing examples
• giving supporting evidence
• commenting on the main idea.
There is also some linking, either stated or implied, with the previous and the following paragraphs.

Sample paragraph
The following paragraph can be analysed to show its structure and the functions of the 8 sentences. (The numbers are inserted only to identify the sentences)
(1) The Ultra Long Duration Balloon is a super-pressure, or “closed” balloon, which is not vented to the atmosphere like conventional balloons. (2) Usually fabricated from stronger materials such as polyester, super-pressure balloons are inflated like their zero-pressure counterparts and then sealed. (3) Once a super-pressure balloon reaches the desired altitude, the sun’s heat forces the internal pressure to rise until it exceeds the outside ambient pressure. (4) As a result, the differential pressure between the inside and the outside increases. (5) At night when the gas cools, the differential pressure drops, but if enough gas has been put into the balloon the differential cannot drop below zero. (6) In this way, the balloon remains full and at a stable altitude without having to drop ballast. (7) So long as the balloon remains impervious to helium or hydrogen molecules, it can stay aloft. (8) Accordingly, super-pressure balloons can be used for flights of far greater duration than zero-pressure systems.
I. Steve Smith, Jnr. & James A. Cutts “Floating in Space” Scientific American Vol 281 No 5 November 1999

Analysis
* (1) is the topic sentence – contrasting the Ultra Long Duration Balloon with conventional ones
* (2) - (7) explain how the ULDB works. (2) describes the special features of its construction. (3) and (4) explain how it operates in the air, with (5) adding what happens at night. (6) and (7) summarise its operation.
* (8) provides an overall conclusion – the ULDB can stay in the air longer than conventional balloons

Points to check in your own writing
Here are some simple tasks for you to see if you are constructing paragraphs properly.
􀂃 Take one or two pages of your academic writing. Do a ‘visual’ check on the length of paragraphs – does the text look too heavy or too ‘bitty’ or about right?
􀂃 Check whether the average length of the paragraphs is between 7 and 14 lines (3 to 7 sentences)
􀂃 Count the number of words in randomly selected sentences. Does the average number of words come to between 15 and 25? If so, this is about right.
􀂃 Do the ‘skim’ test: read through the first sentences only of your whole text and see if you can follow the gist of your argument. If you can, you are writing your topic sentences well.