2.10 Plagiarism

All academic, scientific, technical and research writing must document all sources used. If you purposely use another person's writing as if it was your own, then you are guilty of plagiarism, the literary form of theft. Not to cite a source used is a most serious offence and the integrity of the writer and the writer’s work will be seriously compromised if not dismissed outright.

What sources must be documented?

􀂃 Every reference to another’s work, word or ideas must be cited.
􀂃 Every paraphrase must acknowledge the original source.
􀂃 Every citation from a book, magazine, journal, the Internet, or speech must be noted.
􀂃 Every borrowing must be documented.
􀂃 Every quotation (whole or partial) must be given due credit.
Not all plagiarism is intentional, but that in no way changes the seriousness of the offence – and the consequences suffered in reputation and integrity for the writer, the writer’s research, and the writer’s written results. Plagiarism can and has destroyed careers.

What are the basic ways of avoiding plagiarism?
􀂃 provide in-text documentation for each idea you have 'borrowed' from someone else (see Section 4.8 Quoting)
􀂃 put quotation marks round each item directly quoted (see Section 4.8 Quoting)
􀂃 make sure that your paraphrased material is written in your own style and language, and not simply copied from another person, or their sentences just rearranged (see Section 4.7 Paraphrasing)
􀂃 provide detailed information in your footnotes (or endnotes) and bibliography about all the sources you have cited (see Section 2.9 Referencing)

2.11 Abstracts

Abstracts are called ‘summaries’ by some journals, though strictly speaking the terms are not exactly the same.
􀂃 A summary restates the main findings and conclusions of a paper and is written for people who have already read the whole thing. (See section 2.12 Summary Writing)
􀂃 An abstract is a shortened version of the paper written for people who may never read the full version. Since abstracts are often reprinted in abstracting journals separated from the original paper, they need to be self-explanatory.

An abstract normally appears at the top of the page in front of the actual paper it outlines. The purpose is to inform readers as concisely as possible what is in the article so that they can decide whether to read it in detail.

What types of abstracts are there?

There are two kinds of abstract –

• Descriptive abstract: this provides a kind of ‘contents list’ of what will be in the paper; what the writer will deal with or attempt to prove in the article, rather than a synopsis of the actual results. Since it contains general statements, it is more appropriate for longer papers, such as review articles, and can be written before the paper itself is drafted.

• Informative abstract: this does not simply describe what will be in the paper, but also gives a summary of the main factual information, such as your methods and materials, results and conclusions. This type of abstract is more suited to papers or reports about original research. It is usually better to write an informative abstract when the writing of the complete paper is finished.

Should I write a descriptive abstract or an informative abstract?

Your journal editor will guide you on this point. Normally, when writing up research, the informative abstract is better since you give the reader factual information as well as your main opinions. In some circumstances, the descriptive abstract is preferred, e.g. if you are working in a controversial area and have results that you do not want to reveal until the reader has read the whole paper. Abstracts can also be a mixture of both descriptive and informative elements.

How long should an abstract be?

There is no fixed length. It is important to write enough for what the reader needs to know rather than summarising everything in the paper. A typical length is between 100 and 250 words, or between 5% and 10% of the original.

What should an informative abstract contain?

The informative abstract will contain a selection of these elements, depending on how you perceive the reader’s needs
• an expansion or explanation of the title
• the purpose of the research
• how the research was conducted
• what the main findings were
• what the findings mean
• what recommendations can be made, e.g. for further research
• what the limitations of the research were
Normally you would NOT include in your abstract
• any information that is not in the paper itself
• tables and diagrams
• citations from other people’s work

How is an abstract structured?

Rather than following the sequence of sections in the paper itself, it is often a good idea in an abstract to put the most significant ideas first, whether it be the method, the results, your recommendations, or whatever. In this way, readers who are short of time will at least know your main point even if they only read the first sentence.

Is there any difference in style between a descriptive and an informative abstract?
Both types of abstract must communicate ideas effectively, preferably with direct, active statements in short, simple sentences. There can be a difference in the use of verb tenses:
* use the present tense when you make general statements of fact, or say what your paper does (as in a descriptive abstract)
* use the past tense when you explain what you actually did or found out in your piece of research (as in an informative abstract)
The descriptive abstract will make more use of generalised vocabulary and phrases, while the informative abstract will have more precise, specific language, including numbers.

What are ‘keywords’?

These are the most important words in your paper that are specifically related to your topic. Your editor may want you to identify these so that they can be printed at the end of the abstract (or sometimes after the title in the journal’s contents list).
Example abstracts

Abstract A
An Overview of Rotating Stall and Surge Control for Axial Flow Compressors.
Modeling and control for axial flow compression systems have received great attention in recent years. The objectives are to suppress rotating stall and surge, to extend the stable operating range of the compressor system, and to enlarge domains of attraction of stable equilibria using feedback control methods. The success of this research field will significantly improve compressor performance and thus future aeroengine performance. This paper surveys the research literature and summarizes the major developments in this active research field, focusing on the modeling and control perspectives to rotating stall and surge for axial flow compressors.

Keywords: axial flow compressor, rotating stall, surge

Gu G., Sparks A. & Banda S. IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology Vol 7 No 6 November 1999 p. 639-647.

Points to note
• Purpose. Abstract A is a descriptive abstract: it tells you what the writers do in the article, but not their actual ideas.
• Structure. ‘A’ begins with an explanation of the research field, its aims and the potential outcome of the research; it goes on to state the authors’ intention of surveying the research literature and summarising major developments.
• Language use.
* It uses only present tenses (including present perfect and will future).
* It contains generalised academic phrases, e.g. have received great attention, the objectives are to …, this paper surveys …and summarises …., focusing on ….
* Both abstracts use extended sentences in order to condense information. In ‘A’ we have The objectives are to …, to …, and to ….

Abstract B
CD46 is a Cellular Receptor for Human Herpesvirus 6
Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) is the etiologic agent of exanthum subitum, causes opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients, and has been implicated in multiple sclerosis and in the progression of AIDS. Here, we show that the two major HHV-6 subgroups (A and B) use human CD46 as a cellular receptor. Downregulation of surface CD46 was documented during the course of HHV-6 infection. Both acute infection and cell fusion mediated by HHV-6 were specifically inhibited by a monoclonal antibody to CD46; fusion was also blocked by soluble CD46. Nonhuman cells that were resistant to HHV-6 fusion and entry became susceptible upon expression of recombinant human CD46. The use of a ubiquitous immunoregulatory receptor opens novel perspectives for understanding the tropism and pathogenicity of HHV-6.

Santoro F., Kennedy P., Locatelli G., Maluati M., Berger E., Lusso P. Cell Vol 99 No 7 December 23, 1999

Points to note
􀂃 Purpose. Abstract B is an informative abstract: it contains details of what was investigated, what the findings were and what might happen in the future.

• Structure. ‘B’ first defines HHV-6 and explains its importance; it gives the purpose of the research (we show that …), the method (Downregulation …) and the results; it concludes with a statement of future prospects as a result of the research.

• Language use.
* It uses present tenses for general statements and explanation of what the paper does.
* It uses past tenses to describe the procedure and results of the research.
* It contains a greater density of technical, topic-related terms than the descriptive abstract, together with specific verbs to describe precisely what happened in the research (inhibited, blocked, etc.).
* Note the use of the passive when describing the research.
* It also uses extended sentences in order to condense information. For example, the first sentence is Human Herpesvirus 6 is …, causes …, and has been ….

Points to check in your own writing
􀂃 Do you need to write an informative or a descriptive abstract?
􀂃 Does your abstract give the reader a clear, straightforward idea of what your research is about?
􀂃 Does it contain the right amount and the right kind of information (depending on what type it is)?
􀂃 Is it the right length?

2.12 Summary Writing

A summary is a condensation of the main ideas in an article or in a section of someone else's writing. A summary may stand alone, for example as a similar piece of writing to an abstract. Or it may simply form a section within a longer piece of your writing. The aim of a summary is to give your readers a clear, objective, accurate and balanced account of an article they may, or may not, have not read, and to put it into the context of your own work.
Summarising therefore is a skill that involves picking out the key ideas in someone else's writing and linking them up in your own words.

What is the difference between summarising and paraphrasing?

There are clear similarities between the two since both involve the re-writing of an author's ideas in your own words. (See Section 4.7 Paraphrasing) However, the main differences are:
􀂃 a summary is likely to be shorter. Whereas paraphrasing may involve keeping more or less to the same length as the original, a summary could be the reduction of a long paragraph to a sentence, an article to a paragraph or a book to a page.
􀂃 a summary will keep to the structure and content of the original more closely than a paraphrase. The latter is more likely to include your personal gloss or interpretation of the original; in a summary you should avoid adding extra information or ideas that are not actually in the text you have read.

When is summary writing useful?
Apart from the need to summarise other writers' ideas at particular points when writing a research paper, the skill is valuable in these situations:
􀂃 when reviewing an article or book
􀂃 when annotating a bibliography entry
􀂃 when preparing an abstract
In addition, of course, it is useful to develop the skill by keeping summary 'note cards' on other works that you read. In particular, this will help you to avoid plagiarism, since by writing from notes you will be presenting information in your own words.

Are there any guidelines for summary writing?
1. Read the whole of the original text quickly to gain an impression of its content and its relevance to your work
2. Highlight the main points as you read
3. Make notes of your own on these points
4. Put away the original and rewrite your notes in your own words in complete sentences
5. Begin your summary with a statement of the main idea at the start. Don't forget to include referencing of your source.
6. Using your notes, write out your subsidiary or supporting points in coherent, well-connected sentences
7. Re-read your work to check that you have included all the information that you need.

Sample summary
The main points in the text below can be written in a shorter, summary form for inclusion in your own writing. Points about the summary:
􀂃 it is about one third of the length of the original (88 words, compared to 273 in the original
􀂃 the number of sentences has been reduced from 16 to 4
􀂃 the information has been compressed into these 4 sentences by
* cutting out less important information, e.g. examples
* reducing a whole clause or sentence to a phrase
* by using more subordinate clauses
* linking ideas by simple use of commas

Original text
Solar power is energy generated from the sun. Many electronic devices, such as watches and calculators, can use the sun's energy directly to provide the power they need. Light energy from the sun changes the electrical conducting properties of the silicon crystals, and a tiny electric current starts to flow. This system is called a solar cell. Although solar cells used on earth do not provide much power, satellites in space run on the same principle. They get many times more energy because they are closer to the sun. In the future, workers in space may build huge power stations from solar cells many kilometers wide. The electricity generated could be beamed down as microwaves and then converted back into electricity. Most of the solar power that we use today is based on a much simpler principle than the silicon solar cell. Solar panels on the roofs of houses heat water directly for bathing and central heating systems. The industrial version of the solar panel is the solar furnace, in which huge, curved solar panels, together with a system of mirrors, concentrate a large amount of solar energy onto a small area. The heat energy makes steam for generating electricity. Solar power is clean, renewable, non-polluting and does not damage the environment. It is potentially one of the more important sources of energy in the world. A major disadvantage of solar energy is that the amount of energy generated depends on the season, the part of the world and the weather on a particular day. Another disadvantage is that the raw materials for solar panels, such as glass and aluminium, are quite expensive.
from Dr Trisha Greenhalgh (1994) Environment Today Harlow, Longman

Sample summary
Dr Greenhalgh explains how solar power works in two ways. Light from the sun can generate a tiny current in silicon crystals, creating a solar cell, which is used to run space satellites and in the future could provide electricity from space power stations. Solar panels, or the larger industrial solar furnace, generate heat directly through concentrating solar energy in a small area. Solar power is renewable, non-polluting and potentially an important energy source, but its value is limited by weather, region and the cost of raw materials.

Points to check in your own writing
􀂃 In my summary, is there a clear thesis statement (with the writer's main idea)?
􀂃 Does it give a reader who has not read the original a clear idea of what it said?
􀂃 Does it include the writer's other main supporting points? Have I cut out unnecessary detail and examples?
􀂃 Does the finished summary have the same balance of ideas as the original text?
􀂃 Is it written in simpler language than the original?
􀂃 Do the ideas in the summary flow logically and in grammatically well-linked sentences?