Chapter 5 GRAMMAR

5.1 Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify the meaning of another word or even a whole sentence. They do this by providing an answer to such questions as How …? To what extent…? Where…? When…? How often …? and In what manner …?
A slightly non-planar crack is treated as being perturbed from perfectly planar reference crack.
To what extent… ?
The perturbation method we develop here applies to any crack geometries ….
Where …?
Finally, the normalised dynamic stress intensity factors are presented in Figs.10 and 11.
When…?
Independently, using the same class as for material 1, we apply a different linear combination of all the nuclei of strain at the object point of material 2.
In what manner…?

Which other words can adverbs modify?
They can modify:
􀂃 verbs
Magnesium is a metal which burns brightly.
􀂃 adjectives
This results in very large systems of equations due to the need to extend the discretisation well away from the zone of interest.
􀂃 other adverbs
This results in very large systems of equations due to the need to extend the discretisation well away from the zone of interest.
􀂃 a whole sentence
Conversely, when the second material is softer than the one containing the fracture, it attracts the fracture towards the interface in the same manner the stiffer material drove it away.

How are adverbs formed?
We can distinguish three types of adverbs:
simple:just, only, well, back, out, etc.
compound:therefore, hereby, herewith, etc.
derivational (mostly derived from adjectives with -ly):equally, finally, markedly sideways, clockwise, northwards
Adjectives ending in both -ic and -ical have adverbs ending in -ically. The exception is public (adverb: publicly).

adjective:academic, chemical, geometric, geometrical ,electric, electrical* ,economic, economical*

adverb:academically,chemically,geometrically,electrically,economically

* The adjectives with asterisks have different meanings:
- electric: used with names of particular machines, e.g. electric motor, electric blanket
- electrical: used before more general words, e.g. electrical appliances, electrical engineering
- economic: refers to the science of economics or the economy of a country, e.g. economic theory, economic problems
- economical: means 'not wasting money', e.g. an economical car (= cheap to run)

What are the problem areas when using adverbs?
􀂃 confusing adjectives and adverbs
Adjectives and adverbs can express the same idea, but whereas you use an adverb to modify a verb or adjective, adjectives can only be applied to nouns.

adjective
Platinum has exceptional resistance to corrosion.
Iron is easy to extract from iron ores. / It is easy to extract from iron ores.

adverb
Platinum is exceptionally corrosion-resistant.
Iron can easily be extracted from iron ores.

􀂃 position of the adverb in the sentence
Adverbs can be placed at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence, but the rules are complex. See Section 5.7 Word Order for more details.
􀂃 using adverbs as sentence modifiers
In academic writing, adverbs and adverbial phrases are frequently used as sentence modifiers. When they are used in this way at the beginning of a sentence, they are normally separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. For information about the meaning of various sentence modifying adverbs, see Section 3.5 Signposting.
􀂃 using phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb plus a preposition, or a short adverb acting like a preposition, that combine to create a meaning different from the usual meanings of the individual words. Most of the words that make up phrasal verbs are short and frequently used. They function like normal verbs, but because they are idiomatic, they can create special vocabulary problems for non-native writers. Phrasal verbs are more suitable or appropriate for use in informal English, though some are quite acceptable in scientific report writing.
Formal: reduce in amount,remove,calculate,postpone,abolish,conduct
Informal: cut down,cross out, work out, put off, do away with, carry out

Now, carry out the imaginary operation of inserting a thin layer of one material, arbitrarily labelled as no. 1, between the two dissimilar materials at every interface in the body.

5.2 Articles

Correctly using and choosing the proper article is one of the biggest problems in English grammar.

􀂃 The indefinite articles, a / an, can be used to talk about
* objects or ideas in general
* one particular person or thing, when it is mentioned for the first time, or when the reader does not know which one is meant, or when it does not matter which one.

􀂃 The definite article, the, can be used
* when the noun is singled out as unique or specific
* when the reader already knows which particular person(s) or thing(s) etc you are talking about.

What are the basic rules for using the articles?
The indefinite article (a / an) is used with singular countable nouns referring to a non-unique item in general:
• separate objects, people, ideas, etc.
singular: a microscope, a scientist, a plan
plural: five microscopes, a large number of scientists, several alternative plans

The definite article (the) is used with nouns referring to a unique specific item. A noun can have a definite article when
􀂃 it is modified by a superlative or ordinal number
the first experiment the last measurement the most significant results the only time

􀂃 it refers to an entire type or species
The telephone can be used to transfer data

􀂃 it refers to an item previously mentioned
They connected a phone line to a modem. The modem was connected to a computer in order for the computer to access the internet.

􀂃 there is only one of something or it is fully specified by the context or background knowledge
The periodic table is often used in chemistry.
The internet is now used by millions of people across the world.

􀂃 it is followed by of + noun phrase
The coefficient of expansion of brass is 0.000026oC.
The importance of international co-operation is emphasised in the report.

Note: Some generalisations may be needed in scientific use, in which case the is left out in long, complex, uncountable or plural noun phrases, in particular those including an of + noun phrase. In these sentences, both options, i.e. using the articles or omitting them, are correct.

(The) Little-known sources of air pollution are misfires in a car’s engine.
(The) Creation of the simulation model allows for a degree of optimisation of (the) engine performance.

What is the difference between countable and uncountable nouns?
The distinction between these two types of nouns is very important in English and understanding this will help you to use articles more accurately. Most nouns are either countable or uncountable, while some can be either, depending on the meaning or the context.

Countable nouns are things we can count. We use them with the indefinite article a / an, and we can make them plural.
car table job experiment employer teacher laboratory suggestion

Uncountable nouns are things we cannot count. They include many abstract nouns that you may use frequently in scientific writing. They have no plural form and cannot be used with the indefinite article a / an. When you want to itemise these nouns, you have to add a phrase like a piece of …
information advice music money progress research work travel luggage

Some words which are basically uncountable nouns can also be used as countable nouns with a somewhat different meaning, and this applies to many words in scientific and technical English.

􀂃 As uncountable nouns, they refer to something general, e.g.
metal, fuel, material, mass, velocity, pressure, power, water, analysis, science, sound, temperature

􀂃 As countable nouns, they refer to something more specific, one or more of a set, e.g.
a soft metal a carbonated water a velocity of 25 m. per second an analysis of this problem

Example sentences. Note that the countable version of the noun is used when it is defined in some way, either by an adjective or an of phrase.

uncountable
A thermometer measures temperature.
Temperature is generally expressed in degrees.
This factory produces steel.
Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen.
This problem is beyond human understanding.

countable
The thermometer showed a temperature of over 50°C.
The boy had a high temperature.
Cheaper mild steels are now being produced.
A water molecule is composed of two hydrogens and on oxygen.
A clear understanding of the practical implications lies at the heart of successful flow modelling.

How can I choose the correct article?
Here is a flow chart which may aid you in correctly choosing the proper article. The following example will help you to use the flow chart (the analysed nouns are in italics):
One form of listening to (music) (1) is by using CDs. The CD is (digital system) (2). The player’s laser reads a series of (on/off pulses) (3), without physically touching the disc’s surface. Not every pulse must be read accurately – as long as the number of reading errors remains below a certain limit, (reconstruction) of (music) (4) is complete. But if the number of errors rises above that level, the player loses the sound for a moment. (CD players) (5) contain (electronics) (6) which perform ‘error correction’, filling or bridging gaps when pulses are missing or mis-read.

1 music : this is uncountable, general (there are many kinds of music). Therefore use no article
2 digital system: the noun is countable, singular and general (there are many different systems). Therefore use a: a digital system
3 on / off pulses: the noun is countable, plural, general. So use no article.
4 (reconstruction) of (music): reconstruction is countable, singular and specific (defined by the of phrase): so use the. Music is uncountable, but here specific, referring back to the music mentioned earlier: so use the.
5 CD players: the noun is countable, plural and general (since there can be many players): so use no article
6 electronics: this noun is uncountable and general, referring to the whole range of electronic systems that might be applicable. So use no article.

The complete text would be:
One form of listening to music is by using CDs. The CD is a digital system. The player’s laser reads a series of on/off pulses, without physically touching the disc’s surface. Not every pulse must be read accurately – as long as the number of reading errors remains below a certain limit, the reconstruction of the music is complete. But if the number of errors rises above that level, the player loses the sound for a moment. CD players contain electronics which perform ‘error correction’, filling or bridging gaps when pulses are missing or mis-read.